MADRID — Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez of Spain lost a crucial budgetary vote in Parliament on Wednesday, most likely forcing him to call a snap national election and once again plunging the nation into political uncertainty linked to the issue of Catalan independence.

It was only with the cooperation of Catalan separatist parties that Mr. Sanchez managed to form a minority government in June. On Wednesday, separatist lawmakers joined the main opposition parties in voting down the budget, knowing that doing so could also bring down the government — highlighting the power that Catalonia’s territorial conflict has to shake and shape national politics.

Catalan lawmakers turned their backs on Mr. Sánchez after failing to convince him to consider holding a second independence referendum, after the region held one in 2017 that was ruled unconstitutional.

The budget vote took place a day after 12 former Catalan leaders went on trial before the Supreme Court in Madrid, facing charges of rebellion and sedition in connection with the 2017 referendum and the region’s subsequent declaration of independence.

Eight months ago, Mr. Sánchez unexpectedly took office as prime minister, though his Socialist Party is the second-largest in Parliament and it holds fewer than one quarter of seats there. His ascension came after he won a vote of no-confidence against the previous conservative government, with the backing of Basque and Catalan nationalist lawmakers.

That gave Mr. Sánchez only a tenuous hold on power, and he struggled from the start to keep together his unwieldy alliances, including with the far-left Podemos party and nationalist parties from Catalonia and the Basque region, which had helped him unseat Mr. Rajoy.

Upon taking office, one of Mr. Sánchez’s main pledges was to renew political dialogue with the governing pro-independence politicians in Catalonia, in an effort to end a crisis that reached boiling point in October 2017. He soon met with Quim Torra, the separatist leader of Catalonia, who also took office in June.

But their talks got nowhere, and Mr. Torra recently warned that his party would not approve a new Spanish budget unless Mr. Sánchez considered holding another referendum, this time agreed with the central government in Madrid. Mr. Sánchez’s government rejected this proposal as political blackmail.

At the same time, some right-wing politicians labeled Mr. Sánchez as a traitor to Spanish unity for trying to reach agreement with the separatist faction. At their urging, tens of thousands of people demonstrated in Madrid last weekend, demanding a new election and denouncing the prime minister’s handling of Catalonia.

Under Spanish law, the next national election must be held by mid-2020. While recent opinion polls suggest that opposition parties could win enough votes to form a right-wing coalition government, the outcome of an election is hard to guess at a time when Spain has shifted from a two-party system to a much more fragmented political landscape.

Political divisions left Spain in political limbo for most of 2016, after two consecutive elections failed to produce a clear winner. Eventually, Mr. Rajoy managed to cling on to power.

In December, a far-right party, Vox, achieved its electoral breakthrough in an election in Andalusia, the southern region of Spain.

Mr. Sánchez’s own prospects are unclear, but in the past he has demonstrated sharp survival skills. In 2017, he was ousted as leader of his party, but just a year later, he had not only retaken the helm of his party but also become prime minister.

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